08 Rawls Theory of Justice

  • Justice as Fairness:

    • Rawls introduces the concept of "justice as fairness" as a political ideal.
    • He contrasts his theory with utilitarianism, arguing that justice does not depend on maximizing total or average utility.
    • Justice, for Rawls, is based on two principles:
      • (1) each person should have an equal right to basic liberties; 每个人应享有平等的基本自由权利
      • (2) social and economic inequalities should be arranged to benefit the least advantaged and be attached to positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. 社会和经济不平等应安排为对最不利者有利，并且职务在公平机会均等的条件下向所有人开放

  • The Original Position (原初状态) and the Veil of Ignorance (无知之幕):

    • Rawls introduces a thought experiment called the "original position" where individuals choose principles of justice behind a "veil of ignorance."
      • 原初状态是一个假想的社会契约情境，在这个情境下，所有个体都处于平等的起点，并且要在不受任何外界偏见的情况下，为社会选择正义的基本原则。在这个状态中，个体不知道自己未来在社会中的具体地位，例如不知道自己将是富人还是穷人，是男性还是女性，属于哪个种族，或是拥有怎样的天赋与才能。这个状态确保了所有参与者在选择正义原则时是理性且无私的，因为他们无法依据自己的特殊利益进行决策。
    • The veil of ignorance ensures that no one knows their place in society (e.g., class, gender, ethnicity), allowing fair and impartial decision-making.
      • “无知之幕”是原初状态的关键机制，它是指在做出正义原则的选择时，个体被剥夺了所有与自身实际社会状况相关的信息，包括：社会阶级或经济地位；性别、种族、民族或文化背景；自然天赋、智力或能力；个人偏好、信仰和价值观。
    • This model is meant to determine what principles rational individuals would agree to under conditions of equality.
      • 在无知之幕的条件下，个体必须通过理性思考选择正义原则，因为他们不能依据特定的个人利益来做决定。罗尔斯假设，理性的人在这种情况下会选择那些能够最大限度地减少最不利者风险的制度。这种选择就是“差异原则”（Difference Principle）

  • The Two Principles of Justice:

    • The first principle guarantees equal basic rights and liberties for all citizens, such as freedom of speech, the right to vote, and freedom of conscience. 第一个原则保证了所有公民的平等基本权利和自由，例如言论自由、投票权和信仰自由。
    • The second principle concerns social and economic inequalities, allowing them only if they result in compensating benefits for the least advantaged members of society (the difference principle). 第二个原则涉及社会和经济不平等，只有当这些不平等能为最不利的社会成员带来补偿性利益时，它们才是允许的（差异原则）。
    • Rawls also discusses the idea of "fair equality of opportunity," ensuring that everyone has a fair chance to attain various social positions, regardless of their background.

  • The Priority of Rights and Liberties:

    • Rawls argues that basic rights and liberties are inviolable and take priority over social and economic advantages. 基本权利和自由 > 社会和经济利益
    • This means that individuals cannot trade away their fundamental rights for material gain.

  • The Difference Principle (差异原则):

    • Rawls justifies inequalities only if they improve the position of the least advantaged members of society. 只有当不平等能够改善最不利者的地位时，才是正当的
    • The difference principle is central to Rawls' conception of distributive justice, which prioritizes helping the disadvantaged rather than achieving strict equality. 差异原则: 优先考虑帮助弱势群体，而不是追求严格的平等。

  • Reflective Equilibrium (反思平衡):

    • Rawls introduces the idea of "reflective equilibrium" as a method for reaching justified moral principles.
    • This involves adjusting our beliefs and principles to fit each other, achieving coherence between them.
    • 反思平衡是指个体在特定的道德信念（即具体的直观判断）与普遍的道德原则（即广泛适用的原则）之间来回调整，直到达到一种一致性和平衡的状态。在这个过程中，个体不断地校正自己的具体判断和原则，使它们能够相互一致、彼此支持。
    • 具体来说，反思平衡是一种双向调整的过程：
      1. 自下而上：我们从自己在具体情境中的直觉道德判断出发，例如认为“故意伤害无辜者是错误的”。
      2. 自上而下：我们尝试制定更普遍的原则，以解释和规范这些直觉判断，例如“所有个体都应受到平等对待”。

  • Political Liberalism:

    • Rawls' theory supports a form of political liberalism, emphasizing that a fair system of cooperation must respect the diverse beliefs and values of a pluralistic society.